Battery cells for conventional batteries whether having an inside-outside construction, or a prismatic construction or bipolar packs or button cells, in single cells or multiple stack configurations, have by their design been limited in (1) useful life, (2) open circuit voltage, (3) battery capacity (4) start-up time and (5) low temperature applications. Primary cells of any of these constructions are composed of two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) with an electrolyte between the electrodes. The electrolyte is generally formed of a liquid or liquids to which a number of powdered or soluble ingredients (called the "cathode mix") are added. During the use of a primary cell, the electrochemical process inside the cell causes polarization (that is, the deposit of bubbles of hydrogen gas on the electrodes) with the result that the internal resistance of the cell is increased, with concomitant reduction in the flow of current, and reduction in useful life. In particular, hydrogen gas is evolved at the anode and this hydrogen gas must be removed if the cell is to function properly for practical periods. In the conventional Leclanche cell (carbon anode, zinc cathode), undesirable polarization is reduced by a mixture of manganese dioxide and graphite as depolarizers, which may be maintained, for example, in a container which encloses the carbon anode electrode. One limitation of the Leclanche cell is that its open-circuit voltage is 1.3 volts instead of a desirable typical voltage of 1.5 to 1.8 volts. A battery cell with an open-circuit voltage which is higher is desirable, since it can be used for many more applications and take up much less space, particularly where the cells are series-connected.
The conventional battery cells used today, e.g., "C" cells and "D" cells, are also severely limited in low-temperature applications. They do not function below approximately -4.degree. F. In effect, at such low temperatures, the electrolyte tends to freeze and causes a barrier to the flow of current. This has many consequences which are undesirable.
An adequate battery capacity of a conventional "D" cell is approximately 10 ampere-hours. Up to now, the capacity of a conventional "D" cell using a magnesium anode has been approximately 7 ampere hours, even at low rates of current discharge. Prior to the improvements herein, battery cells using magnesium electrodes could not be discharged at heavy rates of discharge without the evolution of substantial hydrogen gas, polarization and accompanying short battery cell life. This has been true even for moderate rates of current discharge (approximately 200 milliamperes). With the evolution of hydrogen gas the moisture content of the electrolyte goes down, there is a drop-off in voltage, and as the electrolyte dries, cell performance drops dramatically.